Seismology

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The tectonic diversity of the North American continent makes it an ideal region to investigate the structure and dynamics of the continental upper mantle. Investigations of timely geophysical questions, such as the relation to geological age of the variations in the lithospheric thickness, the relation of upper-mantle anisotropy to present day asthenospheric flow and past tectonic events, the nature and strength of the lithosphere/asthenosphere coupling and the driving mechanisms of plate motions, are contingent upon obtaining high-resolution 3-D tomographic models of the isotropic and anisotropic mantle structure of the continent.


Updated isotropic S velocity (a), radial anisotropy (b) and azimuthal anisotropy (c and d) model of the North America upper mantle. Horizontal resolution is 200-km, 400-km, and 400-km for (a), (b) and (c), respectively. (c) and (d) show two azimuthal anisotropy models by surface waveforms only and by surface waveforms and SKS splits, respectively.
Updated isotropic S velocity (a), radial anisotropy (b) and azimuthal anisotropy (c and d) model of the North America upper mantle. Horizontal resolution is 200-km, 400-km, and 400-km for (a), (b) and (c), respectively. (c) and (d) show two azimuthal anisotropy models by surface waveforms only and by surface waveforms and SKS splits, respectively.
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The USGS 3-D Geologic and Seismic Velocity Models of the San Francisco Bay region provide a three-dimensional view of the geologic structure and physical properties of the region down to a depth of 45 km (28 miles). Construction of this 3D Bay Area model has been a joint effort of the USGS Earthquake Hazards Program and the USGS National Cooperative Geologic Mapping Program.


Oblique view, looking from the southwest towards San Francisco Bay. The corner of the model has been cut away to show faults (red lines), basins (yellow), and other geologic rock units (various colors).
Oblique view, looking from the southwest towards San Francisco Bay. The corner of the model has been cut away to show faults (red lines), basins (yellow), and other geologic rock units (various colors).
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The purpose of the Three-Dimensional Community Velocity Model for Southern California is to provide a unified reference model for the several areas of research that depend of the subsurface velocity structure in their analysis. These include strong motion modeling, seismicity location, and tomographic velocity modeling. It is also hoped that the geologic community will find the basin models useful because they are based on structures and interfaces that are largely derived from geologic structure models. The deeper sediment velocities themselves are obtained from empirical relationships that take into account age of the formation and depth of burial. The coefficients of these relationships are calibrated to sonic logs taken from boreholes in the region. Shallow sediment velocities are taken from geotechnical borehole measurements. Hardrock velocities are based on tomographic studies.

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We have developped an a priori model of the upper mantle (Nataf H-C. and Y. Ricard, 3SMAC : an a priori tomographic model of the upper mantle based on geophysical modeling, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 95, 101-122, 1996).

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As part of its monitoring activities, the ANSS includes a national Backbone network, the National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC), the National Strong Motion Project, and 15 regional seismic networks operated by USGS and its partners.
When earthquakes strike, ANSS delivers real-time information, providing situational awareness for emergency-response personnel. In regions with sufficient seismic stations, that information includes –within minutes– a ShakeMap showing the distribution of potentially damaging ground shaking, information used to target post-earthquake response efforts. When fully implemented, ANSS will provide such dense station coverage for all at-risk urban areas. Information from ANSS is a key input to the USGS National Seismic Hazard Maps, which help communities in earthquake-prone regions develop safer building practices.

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An aftershock is a smaller earthquake that follows a larger earthquake, in the same area of the main shock, caused as the displaced crust adjusts to the effects of the main shock. Large earthquakes can have hundreds to thousands of instrumentally detectable aftershocks, which steadily decrease in magnitude and frequency according to known laws. In some earthquakes the main rupture happens in two or more steps, resulting in multiple main shocks. These are known as doublet earthquakes, and in general can be distinguished from aftershocks in having similar magnitudes and nearly identical seismic waveforms.


Gutenberg–Richter law for b = 1
Gutenberg–Richter law for b = 1
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Most large earthquakes are followed by additional earthquakes, called aftershocks, which make up an aftershock sequence. While most aftershocks are smaller than the mainshock, they can still be damaging or deadly. A small fraction of earthquakes are followed by a larger earthquake, in which case the first earthquake is referred to as a foreshock. For example, the 2011 M9.1 Japan earthquake and tsunami was preceded by a M7.3 foreshock two days before. When the M7.3 earthquake first occurred, it was called the mainshock, and then when the M9.1 earthquake occurred, that larger earthquake became the mainshock.

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